Cause And Effect Conditionals Explanations

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Cause and Effect, Conditionals, Explanations

Richard L Epstein
Cause and Effect Conditionals Explanations Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 204 pages
File Size : 40,9 Mb
Release : 2018-11-05
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9780983452119

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Cause and Effect, Conditionals, Explanations by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This series of books presents the fundamentals of reasoning well, in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the footnotes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The essays overlap, forming a unified analysis of reasoning, yet each essay is designed so that it may be read independently of the others. The topic of this volume is the evaluation of reasoning about cause and effect, reasoning using conditionals, and reasoning that involves explanations. The essay "Reasoning about Cause and Effect" sets out a way to analyze whether there is cause and effect in terms of whether an inference from a claim describing the purported cause to a claim describing the purported effect satisfies specific conditions. Different notions of cause and effect correspond to placing different conditions on what counts as a good causal inference. An application of that method in "The Directedness of Emotions" leads to a clearer understanding of the issue whether every emotion need be directed at something. In the essay "Conditionals" various ways of analyzing reasoning with claims of the form "if . . . then . . ." are surveyed. Some of those uses are meant to be judged as inferences that are not necessarily valid, and conditions are given for when we can consider such inferences to be good. In "Explanations" verbal answers to a question why a claim is true are evaluated in terms of conditions placed on inferences from the explaining claims to the claim being explained. Recognizing that the direction of inference of such an explanation is the reverse of that for an argument with the very same claims is crucial in their evaluation. Explanations in terms of functions and goals are also investigated.

The Fundamentals of Argument Analysis

Richard L Epstein
The Fundamentals of Argument Analysis Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 229 pages
File Size : 41,6 Mb
Release : 2018-11-05
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421068

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The Fundamentals of Argument Analysis by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This series of books presents the fundamentals of logic in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the notes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The essays overlap, forming a unified analysis of logic as the art of reasoning well, yet each essay is designed so that it may be read independently. The question addressed in this volume is how we can justify our beliefs through reasoning. The first essay, "Arguments," investigates what it is that we call true or false and how we reason toward truths through arguments. A general theory of argument analysis is set out on the basis of what we can assume about those with whom we reason. The next essay, "Fallacies," explains how the classification of an argument as a fallacy can be used within that general approach. In contrast, there is no agreement on what the terms "induction" and "deduction" mean, and they are not useful in evaluating arguments, as shown in "Induction and Deduction." In reasoning to truths, in the end we must take some claims as basic, not requiring any justification for accepting them. How we choose those claims and how they affect our reasoning is examined in "Base Claims." The essay "Analogies" considers how comparisons can be used as the basis of arguments, arguing from similar situations to similar conclusions. An important use of analogies is in reasoning about the mental life of other people and things, which is examined in "Subjective Claims," written with Fred Kroon and William S. Robinson. "Generalizing" examines how to argue from part of a collection or mass to the whole or a larger part. The question there is whether we are ever justified in accepting such an argument as good. "Probabilities" sets out the three main ways probability statements have been interpreted: the logical relation view, the frequency view, and the subjective degree of belief view. Each of those is shown to be inadequate to make precise the scale of plausibility of claims and the scale of the likelihood of a possibility. Many discussions of how to reason well and what counts as good reason are given in terms of who or what is rational. In the final essay, "Rationality," it's shown that what we mean by the idea of someone being rational is of very little use in evaluating reasoning or actions. This volume is meant to give a clearer idea of how to reason well, setting out methods of evaluation that are motivated in terms of our abilities and interests. At the ground of our reasoning, though, are metaphysical assumptions, too basic and too much needed in our reasoning for us to justify them through reasoning. But we can try to uncover those assumptions to see how they are important and what depends on them.

Reasoning and Formal Logic

Richard L Epstein
Reasoning and Formal Logic Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 192 pages
File Size : 44,8 Mb
Release : 2018-11-05
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421044

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Reasoning and Formal Logic by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This series of books presents the fundamentals of logic in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the notes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The basic theme here is the analysis of formal logic in terms of what metaphysical assumptions we need when we develop the formal systems we use. The essays together give a perspective of formal logic as part of the art of reasoning well. The essays are • Possibilities and Valid Inferences, • A General Framework for Semantics for Propositional Logics, • Why Are There So Many Logics? • Truth and Reasoning, • On Translations, • Reflections on Temporal and Modal Logic, • The Timelessness of Classical Predicate Logic, • Events in the Metaphysics of Predicate Logic, • Categoricity with Minimal Metaphysics, • Reflections on Gödel's Theorems, • On the Error in Frege's Proof that Names Denote, and • Postscript: Logic as the Art of Reasoning Well.

Reasoning in Science and Mathematics

Richard L Epstein
Reasoning in Science and Mathematics Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 133 pages
File Size : 53,9 Mb
Release : 2018-11-05
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9780983452133

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Reasoning in Science and Mathematics by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This series of books is meant to present the fundamentals of reasoning well in a clear manner accessible to both scholars and students. The body of each essay gives the main development of the subject, while the footnotes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The topic of this volume is the nature and evaluation of reasoning in science and mathematics. Science and mathematics can both be understood as proceeding by a method of abstraction from experience. Mathematics is distinguished from other sciences only in its greater abstraction and its demand for necessity in its inferences. That methodology of abstraction is the main focus here. The study of these subjects is not just of academic interest but can lead to better research in science and mathematics. First comes clear thinking, then comes clear research and clear writing. The essays: • Background • Models and Theories • Experiments • Mathematics as the Art of Abstraction.

Critical Thinking 5th edition

Richard L Epstein,Michael Rooney
Critical Thinking 5th edition Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein,Michael Rooney
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 523 pages
File Size : 49,7 Mb
Release : 2018-11-01
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421334

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Critical Thinking 5th edition by Richard L Epstein,Michael Rooney Pdf

This fifth edition of Critical Thinking by the noted logician Richard L. Epstein is practical, engaging, and easy to teach. Students enjoy and understand it because it is clear and has hundreds of examples using a cast of characters who reason as we do every day. More than 1,000 exercises lead students to be able to reason well in their courses and their lives. Essay writing lessons and visual writing lessons, using the cast of characters, teach students that first comes clear thinking and then comes clear writing. A complete and comprehensive Instructor's Manual makes the text easy to teach and grade. New to this edition: chapters on explanations and reasoning in the sciences. • Over 1,000 examples and exercises from daily life. • A dozen original writing lessons fully integrated with the text. • Unique cartoon writing lessons help students apply critical thinking to non-verbal situations.

Time and Space in Formal Logic

Richard L. Epstein
Time and Space in Formal Logic Book PDF

Author : Richard L. Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 303 pages
File Size : 50,6 Mb
Release : 2022-09-13
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421693

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Time and Space in Formal Logic by Richard L. Epstein Pdf

Time and Space in Formal Logic begins with an analysis of assumptions about how logic and language relate. Then in the first section, times are taken to be established by true propositions, and those are related as before and after with temporal propositional connectives. In the second section, times are treated as things that can be picked out and counted, leading to a predicate logic that allows for quantification over times. In the third section, locations in space are also treated as things that can be picked out and counted, leading to a predicate logic that allows for quantification over both times and locations. Many applications of the formal systems to formalizing ordinary language propositions and inferences clarify better the assumptions we make in reasoning taking account of time and space by making those precise in the formal systems. Appendices on events, branching times, intentions, and descriptive names add to the scope of the work.

The Internal Structure of Predicates and Names

Richard L Epstein
The Internal Structure of Predicates and Names Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 299 pages
File Size : 42,5 Mb
Release : 2018-10-31
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421341

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The Internal Structure of Predicates and Names by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This series of volumes is meant to extend the scope of what we can formalize in classical predicate logic, and in doing so see the limitations of what can be done. The first section of this volume presents classical predicate logic with equality. In the second section, that logic is extended to formalize reasoning that involves adverbs and relative adjectives by viewing those as modifiers of simpler predicates. What is normally taken to be an atomic predicate, such as "barking loudly", can then have internal structure. Reasoning that involves conjunctions of terms, as in "Tom and Dick lifted the table", conjunctions of modifiers, conjunctions of predicates, and disjunctions of predicates can also be formalized by viewing them as part of the internal structure of atomic predicates. Many questions about the nature of formalizing arise in doing this. The internal structure of names is the topic of the third and last section. Names for functions are used in classical predicate logic to form complex names. In our ordinary reasoning we also use descriptions to form functions, such as "the wife of", and descriptions to form names, such as "the cat that scratched Zoe". To reason with those we can take account of their internal structure by dropping the assumption that every name must refer to a specific thing. The formal systems that are developed here are meant to help us understand how to reason well. Many worked examples show how to use them. Those examples also uncover limitations of the formal work. Throughout this series of volumes, the work proceeds by abstracting and creating formal models to formalize reasoning. By paying attention to the process of abstracting we gain insight into why we consider some reasoning to be good and some reasoning bad, and insight also into the deeper assumptions we make about the world on which our judgments rely.

Language and the World

Richard L Epstein
Language and the World Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 307 pages
File Size : 54,5 Mb
Release : 2021-07-09
Category : Language Arts & Disciplines
ISBN : 9781938421570

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Language and the World by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This book presents a new perspective on ways we encounter the world with our languages. There are two kinds of languages. Some direct speakers to encounter the world as made up of things. Others direct speakers to encounter the world as the flow of all with no idea of change, for there is no thing to change, only differing descriptions of the flow. The essays by Richard L. Epstein set out this division of languages and explore its significance for linguistics, metaphysics, thought, meaning, logic, and ethics. The other essays, by Dorothy Lee, Benjamin Lee Whorf, M. Dale Kinkade, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Benson Mates, extend, or contradict, or support those ideas, leading to a large view of how we talk and understand, and how that affects how we live.

How to Reason

Richard L. Epstein
How to Reason Book PDF

Author : Richard L. Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 193 pages
File Size : 44,5 Mb
Release : 2019-02-05
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421396

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How to Reason by Richard L. Epstein Pdf

Too often we're guided by what we last heard, by our friends' approval, by impulse—our desires, our fears. Without reflection. Without even stopping to think. In this book you'll learn how to reason and find your way better in life. You'll learn to see the consequences of what you and others say and do. You'll learn to see the assumptions that you and others make. You'll learn how to judge what you should believe. These are the skills we all need to make good decisions. Illustrations using a cast of cartoon characters make the concepts memorable. And many exercises will help you to check your understanding. Truly a book for all—from high school to graduate school, from auto repair to managing a company. "How to Reason" will help you find a way in life that is clearer and not buffetted by the winds of nonsense and fear.

Propositional Logics 3rd edition

Richard L Epstein
Propositional Logics 3rd edition Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 509 pages
File Size : 47,8 Mb
Release : 2018-11-05
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9780983452171

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Propositional Logics 3rd edition by Richard L Epstein Pdf

This book presents the history, philosophy, and mathematics of the major systems of propositional logic. Classical logic, modal logics, many-valued logics, intuitionism, paraconsistent logics, and dependent implication are examined in separate chapters. Each begins with a motivation in the originators' own terms, followed by the standard formal semantics, syntax, and completeness theorem. The chapters on the various logics are largely self-contained so that the book can be used as a reference. An appendix summarizes the formal semantics and axiomatizations of the logics. The view that unifies the exposition is that propositional logics comprise a spectrum: as the aspect of propositions under consideration varies, the logic varies. Each logic is shown to fall naturally within a general framework for semantics. A theory of translations between logics is presented that allows for further comparisons, and necessary conditions are given for a translation to preserve meaning. For this third edition the material has been re-organized to make the text easier to study, and a new section on paraconsistent logics with simple semantics has been added which challenges standard views on the nature of consequence relations. The text includes worked examples and hundreds of exercises, from routine to open problems, making the book with its clear and careful exposition ideal for courses or individual study.

The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking

Richard L Epstein
The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking Book PDF

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
Page : 201 pages
File Size : 49,9 Mb
Release : 2019-07-09
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9781938421303

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The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking by Richard L Epstein Pdf

First comes clear thinking, then comes clear writing. *** The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking teaches very clearly the essential skills to reason better--for classwork, for writing, and in everyday life. Hundreds of pertinent, analyzed, and engaging examples from the Internet, magazines, newspapers, radio, as well as dialogues of cartoon characters illustrate how to analyze arguments and make better decisions. The Pocket Guide is both the perfect supplement for any course that requires critical thinking and a practical aid for self-study. This fifth edition has new chapters on reasoning in the sciences that provide the basics for any student to begin the study of any science: explanations, experiments, the scientific methods, and models and theories.

Abduction and Induction

P.A. Flach,Antonis Hadjiantonis
Abduction and Induction Book PDF

Author : P.A. Flach,Antonis Hadjiantonis
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
Page : 317 pages
File Size : 40,6 Mb
Release : 2013-04-18
Category : Mathematics
ISBN : 9789401706063

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Abduction and Induction by P.A. Flach,Antonis Hadjiantonis Pdf

From the very beginning of their investigation of human reasoning, philosophers have identified two other forms of reasoning, besides deduction, which we now call abduction and induction. Deduction is now fairly well understood, but abduction and induction have eluded a similar level of understanding. The papers collected here address the relationship between abduction and induction and their possible integration. The approach is sometimes philosophical, sometimes that of pure logic, and some papers adopt the more task-oriented approach of AI. The book will command the attention of philosophers, logicians, AI researchers and computer scientists in general.

Explanation in Action Theory and Historiography

Gunnar Schumann
Explanation in Action Theory and Historiography Book PDF

Author : Gunnar Schumann
Publisher : Routledge
Page : 267 pages
File Size : 51,5 Mb
Release : 2019-05-29
Category : Philosophy
ISBN : 9780429000652

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Explanation in Action Theory and Historiography by Gunnar Schumann Pdf

Is the appropriate form of human action explanation causal or rather teleological? While this is a central question in analytic philosophy of action, it also has implications for questions about the differences between methods of explanation in the sciences on the one hand and in the humanities and the social sciences on the other. Additionally, this question bears on the problem of the appropriate form of explanations of past human actions, and therefore it is prominently discussed by analytic philosophers of historiography. This volume brings together causalists and anti-causalists to address enduring philosophical questions at the heart of this debate, as well as their implications for the practice of historiography. Part I considers the quarrel between causalism and anti-causalism in recent developments in the philosophy of action. Part II presents papers by causalists and anti-causalists that are more narrowly focused on the philosophy of historiography.

The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning

Keith J. Holyoak,Robert G. Morrison
The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning Book PDF

Author : Keith J. Holyoak,Robert G. Morrison
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
Page : 880 pages
File Size : 52,9 Mb
Release : 2005-04-18
Category : Psychology
ISBN : 0521824176

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The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning by Keith J. Holyoak,Robert G. Morrison Pdf

The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning is the first comprehensive and authoritative handbook covering all the core topics of the field of thinking and reasoning. Written by the foremost experts from cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and cognitive neuroscience, individual chapters summarize basic concepts and findings for a major topic, sketch its history, and give a sense of the directions in which research is currently heading. The volume also includes work related to developmental, social and clinical psychology, philosophy, economics, artificial intelligence, linguistics, education, law, and medicine. Scholars and students in all these fields and others will find this to be a valuable collection.

MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review

Kaplan Test Prep
MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review Book PDF

Author : Kaplan Test Prep
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
Page : 337 pages
File Size : 49,9 Mb
Release : 2016-07-05
Category : Study Aids
ISBN : 9781506210261

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MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review by Kaplan Test Prep Pdf

More people get into medical school with a Kaplan MCAT course than all major courses combined. Now the same results are available with MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review. This book features thorough subject review, more questions than any competitor, and the highest-yield questions available. The commentary and instruction come directly from Kaplan MCAT experts and include targeted focus on the most-tested concepts. MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review offers: UNPARALLELED MCAT KNOWLEDGE: The Kaplan MCAT team has spent years studying every MCAT-related document available. In conjunction with our expert psychometricians, the Kaplan team is able to ensure the accuracy and realism of our practice materials. THOROUGH SUBJECT REVIEW: Written by top-rated, award-winning Kaplan instructors, all material has been vetted by editors with advanced English degrees and by a medical doctor. EXPANDED CONTENT THROUGHOUT: The AAMC tests not only content knowledge, critical thinking, and critical analysis and reasoning skills, but also two other important scientific skills: research design and the execution of research, and data-based and statistical analysis. This book has expanded material to help you master these skills for Test Day. MORE PRACTICE THAN THE COMPETITION: With questions throughout the book and access to a full-length practice test online, MCAT CARS Review has more practice than any other MCAT CARS book on the market. ONLINE COMPANION: One practice test and additional online resources help augment content studying. The MCAT is a computer-based test, so practicing in the same format as Test Day is key. KAPLAN'S MCAT REPUTATION: Kaplan is a leader in the MCAT prep market, and twice as many doctors prepared for the MCAT with Kaplan than with any other course.* UTILITY: Can be used alone or with other companion books in Kaplan's MCAT Review series. * Doctors refers to US MDs who were licensed between 2001-2010 and used a fee-based course to prepare for the MCAT. The AlphaDetail, Inc. online study for Kaplan was conducted between Nov. 10 - Dec. 9, 2010 among 763 US licensed MDs, of whom 462 took the MCAT and used a fee-based course to prepare for it.